After the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the government proposed reconstruction plans imposed from above, with little opportunity for public participation. In response, residents of North Rokko adopted the Machizukuri model, a form of participatory planning already tried and tested in Japan. Through neighbourhood assemblies and councils, they developed alternative proposals on housing, the environment, infrastructure and disaster prevention. Over time, these assemblies consolidated into fully-fledged neighbourhood associations, involving over 5,000 people and also taking on the management of public spaces, strengthening community resilience and a sense of active citizenship.
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Machizukuri in Kobe
General Information
ISIG
After the 1995 Kobe earthquake, residents of North Rokko used the participatory Machizukuri model to create alternative reconstruction plans, forming neighbourhood associations that strengthened community resilience and civic engagement.
In January 1995, the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake struck Kobe, killing over 6,000 people and destroying tens of thousands of buildings. In the aftermath, the municipal government introduced rapid top-down reconstruction plans, including land readjustments and new urban developments, which left little room for public input. Many residents, particularly in the Rokko North district, felt excluded from decisions that directly affected their homes and neighbourhoods. In response to this gap, citizens turned to Machizukuri, a participatory urban planning practice already known in Japan to organise assemblies, voice concerns, and influence the reconstruction process.
Needs Addressed
The main problem was the lack of community involvement in Kobe’s post-earthquake reconstruction. Government-led plans were top-down, with very limited time for public consultation, and included measures such as large-scale land readjustments that threatened to displace residents. This created tensions between authorities and citizens, who risked losing both their homes and their voice in the rebuilding of their neighborhoods. Machizukuri emerged as a solution to give residents a platform to participate, propose alternatives, and influence reconstruction in a way that reflected local needs and priorities.
In Japan, disaster risk governance is based on a strong national framework, regulated by the Basic Act on Disaster Management (1961) and coordinated by the Central Disaster Management Council under the leadership of the Prime Minister. Prefectures and municipalities must develop their own local plans, tailored to the risks in their area. Alongside institutions, neighbourhood associations (chonaikai), volunteers and civil society play a key role in strengthening community preparedness and resilience.
Japan is recognised worldwide for its high level of emergency preparedness. At the local level, prefectures, municipalities and neighbourhood associations organise evacuation drills and simulations of earthquakes, tsunamis and fires. Nowadays, Kobe maintains strong disaster preparedness through community networks, city and prefecture alerts, educational programs, regular drills, and technology like early warning systems and digital simulations, all shaped by lessons from the 1995 earthquake.
Kobe has strengthened its infrastructure since the 1995 earthquake through strict building codes, seismic retrofitting, earthquake-resistant structures like the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, advanced monitoring systems, and community-focused disaster planning to ensure both physical and social resilience.
The purpose of engagement in Kobe was to give residents a voice in the post-earthquake reconstruction process, which had initially been designed in a top-down manner by the municipal government. By using Machizukuri assemblies, community members could articulate their needs, propose alternatives, and ensure that housing, infrastructure, and environmental plans reflected local priorities. The engagement aimed not only to improve the fairness and relevance of reconstruction policies.
Engagement was carried out through Machizukuri assemblies and neighborhood councils, which served as forums for dialogue and consensus-building. Residents, supported by professional advisors and community leaders, discussed reconstruction priorities in open meetings and working groups. Subcommittees were created to address specific issues such as housing, disaster prevention, infrastructure, environment, and green spaces.
Residents influenced reconstruction by actively participating in Machizukuri assemblies and councils, where they developed alternative proposals to government plans.
The Machizukuri process strengthened long-term. Through participatory planning, residents gained practical skills in negotiation, consensus-building, and urban management. These new capacities empowered citizens to take an active role not only in reconstruction but also in ongoing disaster preparedness, environmental stewardship, and local governance. Communities became proactive actors in shaping their own future, fostering a culture of civic engagement and resilience.
Hazard Type
Geographical Scope - Nuts
Geographical Scope
Population Size
Population Density
Vulnerable Groups
Governance
Emergency Preparedness
Infrastructure Readiness
Engagement Level
Empowerment Level
Implementation
- Bottom-up governance: shifted reconstruction from a top-down government plan to community-driven decision-making.
- Deliberative assemblies: use of neighborhood councils and subcommittees to discuss housing, infrastructure, disaster prevention, and environment.
- Institutional innovation: temporary citizen assemblies evolved into permanent neighborhood associations, giving residents a lasting role in governance.
- Social empowerment: transformed affected residents, including vulnerable groups, from passive victims into active planners and leaders.
- Replicable model: demonstrated that participatory planning (Machizukuri) could be adapted as a long-term strategy for urban resilience in Japan
Japanese
Machizukuri Councils and Neighborhood Assemblies, City of Kobe (Municipal Government), Professional advisors and academics (support citizen group).
- Machizukuri Councils and Neighborhood Assemblies mobilized communities and ran drills
- The municipal government coordinated city-wide planning, shelters, and infrastructure
- Professional advisors and academics provide technical guidance and training, creating a well-rounded, resilient system
Local residents and neighborhood associations served as the primary forces steering the Machizukuri process.
- Government plan announced: the City of Kobe introduced rapid top-down reconstruction measures with limited public input.
- Community mobilization: residents in Rokko North organized local assemblies to voice concerns and propose alternatives.
- Formation of Machizukuri Councils: eight neighborhood councils were established, later merging into a Combined Council.
- Subcommittees created: working groups addressed housing, infrastructure, disaster prevention, environment, and green spaces.
- Proposal development: citizens, supported by advisors, drafted alternative reconstruction plans and submitted them to the municipal government.
- Institutionalization: temporary assemblies evolved into permanent neighborhood associations, maintaining long-term community governance.
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- Mid-1990s: the Rokko Association for New Machizukuri was established to oppose Kobe City’s top-down plans and propose alternatives.
- 1996: eight Machizukuri Councils were formed; in May they negotiated a reduction in the planned park to protect residents’ property.
- 1997: the Joint Machizukuri Council was created with five thematic subcommittees (housing, disaster prevention, environment, infrastructure, public spaces).
- 1998: the councils evolved into a permanent Neighborhood Association.
Experience of the Implementing Organisation in DRM
Target Audience
Resources Required
Timeframe & Phases
Participation Results
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- The initial top-down reconstruction excluded residents → communities organized Machizukuri Councils to voice their needs.
- Land readjustment plans threatened to displace families → councils negotiated with the city to protect private property.
- Different groups needed coordination → the Joint Machizukuri Council unified voices through thematic subcommittees.
- Risk of disengagement after recovery → councils evolved into permanent Neighborhood Associations and a Park Management Group to maintain participation.
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Risk & Mitigation Plan
Scalability and Sustainability
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There were no significant technological innovations in this case. The innovation was primarily social and organizational, centered on community participation. The creation of councils, assemblies, and committees represented a new way of structuring citizen engagement in post-disaster reconstruction.
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- Community participation is essential: inclusive processes can correct the limits of top-down reconstruction
- Negotiation between citizens and authorities can prevent displacement and protect local interests.
- Coordinated structures (Joint Councils and subcommittees) strengthen collective influence and ensure district-wide solutions.
- Sustaining engagement beyond the emergency builds long-term resilience through permanent neighborhood organizations.
- Transforming affected residents into proactive planners empowers communities and reinforces civic responsibility.